Linux installation

How to Install and Try Linux the Absolutely Easiest and Safest Way

In this follow up to Replace the Retiring Windows XP with Linux we're going learn the easiest and most foolproof way to install and run Xubuntu Linux 12.04 LTS on your old Windows XP computer. The only requirements are that your old computer has USB ports, and that it supports booting from a USB stick. If your computer is too old for USB, then it's pretty darned old and you really need to think about getting a newer one.
There are but four steps: one, go to OSDisc.com and order Xubuntu Linux on a 32-gigabyte USB stick. Then insert the USB stick into your computer, boot up, and start playing with Linux. It is self-contained and doesn't change anything on your computer. You can create and save files on the USB stick, install and remove Linux software, and it's completely portable so you can plug it in and use it anywhere. If you ever get bored with Xubuntu you can delete it and use your USB stick for something else.

Booting to a USB Stick

Ideally your computer is already configured to boot from removable media like USB sticks, CD/DVDs, and even floppy disks if it's old enough. Boot devices are listed in order in your computer's BIOS (basic input/output system), for example CD/DVD, USB, and then hard drive. Your computer BIOS is a little program installed in a microchip on your motherboard, and it performs the initial startup before handing off to your operating system. The BIOS goes down this list of boot devices until it finds one that is present, and then uses that.

Watch the boot messages that appear when you first start up your PC and they will tell you how to enter your BIOS, like in figure 1. Then you can see how startup devices are configured. There is no standard way to do this, so you'll need to press the F1, F2, F11, or Del key to get into your BIOS settings, or possibly even something else; but don't worry, the startup messages will tell you. Then explore your BIOS settings until you see where to configure the boot device priority (figure 2).

Don't worry if your screens don't look exactly like my examples, because they're all a little different. Save your changes, if any, and exit, and when your system re-starts it should boot to your Xubuntu stick. The first screen has two choices: Try Xubuntu and Install Xubuntu.

Click "Try Xubuntu" to run it from the USB stick. When it's finished booting you'll see something like figure four.

Xubuntu recognizes any other installed operating systems, like Windows and system recovery partitions, and there will be icons for them on your Xubuntu desktop. If you have a recovery partition leave it alone. You can click on the Windows partitions to see your files.
Click the little mouse at the top left to see your application menu (figure 5).

Hover your cursor at the bottom to see your Xubuntu dock (figure 6). This auto-hides itself when you move the cursor away. If you want it to always be visible, right-click anywhere on the dock, then left-click Panel > Panel Preferences and uncheck "automatically show and hide the panel."

Now that you're up and running, you're ready to look at some documentation and learn how to run your nice Linux system. Linux uses right-click menus a lot, so remember this while you're exploring Xubuntu. Visit Xubuntu.org/help for how to's and other help resources.
Take your time and be patient. There is no such thing as a dead-easy, no-knowledge-required personal computer. It doesn't matter what computer you use, whether it's Microsoft, Apple, Android, Chromebook, Linux, or anything else. They all require knowledge and study. You should know basic computer terminology and components, and basic networking concepts. We still need keyboards, and there are lots of free typing tutors if you need a tune-up. There are zillions of great YouTube videos and online how to articles, and all kinds of books, and maybe some classes in your community. Linux and the free/open source software world offer a vast wealth of high-quality software for free. We've had affordable, sophisticated personal computers for over 30 years, and there is a world of knowledge literally at our fingertips. It's not hard once you move past "I can't do this."

About Xubuntu

I chose Xubuntu because it is part of the excellent and popular Ubuntu family of Linux distributions. The 12.04 LTS (long-term support) release, codename Precise Pangolin, receives updates and security fixes until April 2017. The interim releases are supported only for 9-18 months. It's nice and lightweight for older computers, and it has a good straightforward user interface. The Ubuntu installer is the easiest and most streamlined of any distro, and Ubuntu updates and upgrades are reliable. Ubuntu is popular and has the backing of its parent company Canonical, so it's not likely to disappear anytime soon. Xubuntu doesn't look much like Windows XP, but it has the same basic layout: an applications menu, and a panel that shows notifications and open apps. You can find everything with just a little bit of poking around and clicking stuff.
I know, my fellow Linux fans, I know, what about Linux Mint? Mint is a wonderful distro. And so is Mageia, and Fedora, and PCLinuxOS, and openSUSE, and Bohdi, and so many more. Linux is a feast of riches. OSDisc.com offers many Linux distros on USB sticks, so feel free to go nuts and use whatever one you want.

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Internet service

Internet service

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides Internet access by using copper, fiber, or even satellite communications to the customer. In this lesson, we will cover exactly what an ISP is, how the ISP connects customers, and what type of services the ISPs provide.

Definition

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company such as AT&T, Verizon, Comcast, or BrightHouse that provides Internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users. ISPs use fiber-optics, satellite, copper wire, and other forms to provide Internet access to its customers.

The type of Internet access varies depending on what the customer requires. For home use, cable or DSL (digital subscriber line) is the perfect, affordable choice. The price of home use can range anywhere from free to roughly $120 a month. The amount of bandwidth is usually what drives the price. Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent through an internet connection in a given amount of time. The speed for home use usually varies from 14 kilobits per second to 100 megabits per second. For large companies and organizations, their bandwidth requirements may be 1 to 10 gigabits per second, which is both insanely fast and expensive!

The Internet Highway

ISPs connect to one another by forming backbones, which is another way of saying a main highway of communications. Backbones usually consist of satellite, copper wire, or even fiber-optic media. Media is a term that means cables or lines, and it's the physical means of connecting your home to the internet.

Now, imagine these 'main highways' are like the major arteries that we have in our bodies. These major arteries push an extreme amount of blood (or data) to our smaller blood arteries (cities). Those smaller arteries then feed into blood vessels (neighborhoods) and then into tiny capillaries (our individual homes).

ISPs provide the same service, except that they use different types of media to do so. ISPs bridge distant locations between cities, states, and countries. Because of these high speed backbone systems, we are able receive an email within seconds, stream our favorite movie without interruption, and play online games with no lag whatsoever.

Satellites

Let's go over the different types of media that are used in order to give you a broader understanding of how ISPs work.

Customers who live in remote locations, such as farms, deserts, and mountainous areas, may require a satellite Internet service. This involves transmitting and receiving data from a satellite orbiting about 22,000 miles above the earth. Although satellite communication is not as fast as other mediums, it does provide flexibility with limited environmental impact, and there is not as much need for support from the local telecommunications company.

These satellite terminals can also be used when setting up natural disaster recovery centers. For example, FEMA used a satellite terminal during Hurricane Katrina, since the public telecommunication infrastructure was severely damaged.

Fiber Optics

Fiber optics, or fiber, is a transmission medium used to transmit light instead of electrical voltage, like copper. The great thing about fiber is that it transmits Internet traffic at the speed of light!

Fiber has great qualities, such as being very reliable and immune to electromagnetic interference, unlike copper. Fiber has the bandwidth capability from 10 gigabits per second all the way up to 31 terabits per second. Without boosting stations (which boost or amplify the signal as it travels, and commonly used with copper), fiber can transmit signals up to 150 miles without regeneration. Right now, there are fiber cables that run along the ocean floor, connecting countries across the globe through high speed Internet access. Pretty cool!

Copper Cables

ISPs will more likely supply home users with a copper medium, such as that used for DSL or cable broadband. This works by sending electrical pulses through a copper wire. Broadband is cheap and provides excellent Internet service to the home user. It uses existing media found commonly in homes, such as your cable and telephone outlets, to provide users with Internet access. Most ISPs will provide their customers with equipment such as modems and routers to complete the installation and receive Internet access.

Unlike fiber, copper is not immune to electromagnetism. Careful placement of the cables must be planned so that interference, such as that from refrigerators, microwaves, and high-powered motors, does not affect the signal. The signal often requires regeneration to prevent attenuation, the process where the signal loses its distinct signature as it travels further down the copper wires, to the point the signal is no longer recognizable. One benefit is that copper is cheap and can be fixed easily if there are any breaks in the line.

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Formula and function

Formula and function

In this lesson, we introduce you to basic rules for creating formulas and using functions. We feel one of the best ways to learn is through practice, so we provide several examples and explain them in detail. The topics we will cover include:

 

• rows and columns
• example math function: SUM()
• operators
• operator precedence
• example financial function: PMT(), loan payment
• using a “string” function (“string” is shorthand for “string of text”) inside a formula and nesting functions

Formulas are a mixture of “functions,” “operators,” and “operands.” Before we write a few formulas, we need to create a function but before we can create a function, we first need to understand row and column notation.

Rows and Columns

To understand how to write formulas and functions, you need to know about rows and columns.

Rows run horizontally and columns run vertically. To remember which is which, think of a column holding up a roof – columns go up-down and thus rows go left-right.

Columns are labeled by letters; rows by numbers. The first cell in the spreadsheet is A1 meaning column A, row 1. The columns are labeled A-Z. When the alphabet runs outs, Excel places another letter in front: AA, AB, AC… AZ, BA, BC, BC, etc.

Example: Function Sum()

Now let’s demonstrate how to use a function.

You use functions by typing them directly in or using the function wizard. The function wizard opens when you either pick a function from the “Formulas” menu from the “Function Library.” Otherwise, you can type = in a cell and a handy drop-down menu will allow you to pick a function.

The wizard tells you what arguments you need to provide for each function. It also provides a link to online instructions if you need help understanding what the function does and how to use it. For example, if you type =sum into a cell, the in-line wizard shows you what arguments are required for the SUM function.

When you type a function, the wizard is inline or right at your fingers. When you select a function from the “Formulas” menu, the wizard is a pop-up box. Here is the pop-up wizard for the SUM() function.

For our first function, let’s use SUM(), which adds a list of numbers.

Suppose we have this spreadsheet to contain plans for budgeting your family’s vacation:

To calculate the total costs you could write =b2+b3+b4+b5 but it’s easier to use the SUM() function.

In Excel, look for the symbol Σ at the top left-hand corner of the Excel screen to find the AutoSum button (mathematicians use the Greek letter Σ for adding a series of numbers).

If the cursor is below the family budget numbers, Excel is smart enough to know that you want to sum the list of numbers above where you placed the cursor, so it highlights the numbers.

Press “enter” to accept the range selected by Excel or use the cursor to change which cells are selected.

If you look at what Excel put into the spreadsheet you can see that it wrote this function:

In this formula, Excel sums the numbers from B2 to B9. Note, we left some room below row 5 so that you could add to the family vacation budget – the cost will certainly go up as the kids list of what they want to do and where they want to go grows longer!

Math functions do not work with letters, so if you put letters into the column the result is shown as “#NAME?” as shown below.

#NAME? indicates that there is some kind of error. It could be any number of things including:

• bad cell reference
• using letters in math functions
• omitting required arguments
• spelling function name wrong
• illegal math operations like division by 0

The easiest way to select the arguments in a calculation is to use the mouse. You can add to or remove from the list of arguments to the function by enlarging or making smaller the box that Excel draws when you move the mouse or click in another cell.

We have clicked on the top of the square drawn by Excel to take “airline tickets” out of the budget. You can see the cross-hair symbol that you can draw to make the selected range larger or smaller.

Press “enter” to confirm the results.

Calculation Operators

There are two types of operators: math and comparison.

Math Operator	Definition
+	addition
–	subtraction, or negation, e.g., 6 * -1 = -6
*	multiplication
/	division
%	percent
^	exponent, e.g. 24 = 2 ^ 4 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 =16

There are other operators not related to mathematics like “&” which means concatenate (join end-to-end) two strings. For example, =“Excel” & “ is Fun” equals “Excel is Fun”.

Now we look at comparison operators.

Comparison Operator	Definition
=	equals, e.g., 2=4 or “b” = “b”
>	greater than, e.g., 4 > 2 or “b” > “a”
<	less than, e.g., 2 < 4 or “a” < “b”
>=	greater than or equal to – another way to think of this is >= means either > or =.
<=	less than or equal to.
<>	not equal to, e.g., 4<>6

As you can see above, comparison operators work with numbers and text.

Note, if you enter =”a”>”b” into a cell it will say “FALSE” since “a” is not greater than “b.” “b” comes after “a” in the alphabet, so “a” > “b” or “b” > “a.”

Operator Order Precedence

Order precedence is an idea from mathematics. Excel has to follow the same rules as mathematics. This topic is more complicated, so take a breath and let’s dive in.

Order precedence means the order in which the computer calculates the answer. As we explained in Lesson 1, the area of a circle is πr2, which is the same as π * r * r. It is not (πr)2.

So you have to understand the order precedence when you write a formula.

Generally, you can say this:

1. Excel first evaluates items in parentheses working inside out.
2. It then uses the order precedence rules of mathematics.
3. When two items have the same precedence, Excel works left to right.

The precedence of math operators is shown below, in descending order.

( and )	When parentheses are used, they override the normal rules of precedence. This means that Excel will do this calculation first. We explain this further below.
–	Negation, e.g., -1. This is the same as multiplying a number by -1. -4 = 4 * (-1)
%	Percent, means multiply by 100. E.g., 0.003 = 0.3%.
^	Exponent, e.g., 10 ^ 2 = 100
* and /	Multiply and divide. How can two operators have the same precedence? It just means that if a formula has two more operators with the same precedence, then the calculation is done left to right.
+ and –	Addition and subtraction.

There are other precedence rules related to strings and reference operators. For the moment, we will just stick with what we just covered. Now, let’s look at some examples.

Example: Calculating the area of a circle

The area of a circle is =PI() * radius ^ 2.

Looking at the table above we see that exponents comes before multiplication. So the computer first calculates radius ^ 2 and then it multiples that result by Pi.

Example: Calculating a raise in salary

Let’s say your boss decides you’re doing a great job and he or she is going to give you a 10% raise! How would you calculate your new salary?

First, remember that multiplication comes before addition.

Is it =salary + salary * 10% or is it =salary + (salary * 10%)?

Suppose your salary is $100. With a 10% raise, your new salary will be:

= 100 + 100 * 10% = 100 + 10 = 110

You can also write it like this:

=100 + (100 * 10%) = 100 + 10 = 110

In the second case, we have make the order of precedence explicit by using parentheses. Remember that parentheses are evaluated before any other operation.

By the way, the easier way to write this is = salary * 110%

Parentheses can be nested inside one another. So, when we write (3 + (4 * 2)), working from inside to outside, first calculates 4 * 2 = 8, then add 3 + 8 to get 11.

A few more examples

Here is another example: = 4 * 3 / 2. What is the answer?

We see from the rules in the table above that * and / have equal precedence. So Excel works from left to right, 4 * 3 = 12 first, then divides that by 2 to get 6.

Again you could make that explicit by writing = (4 * 3) / 2

What about = 4 + 3 * 2?

The computer sees both * and + operators. So following the rules of precedence (multiplication comes before addition) it calculates 3 * 2 = 6 first, then adds 4 to get 10.

If you wanted to change the order of precedence you would write = (4 + 3) * 2 = 14.

What about this one = -1 ^ 3?

Then answer is -3 because the computer calculated = (-1) ^ 3 = -1 * -1 * -1 = -1.

Remember that negative times negative is positive and a negative times a positive is negative. You can see this like this (-1 * -1) * -1 = 1 * -1 = -1.

So there’s a few examples of mathematical order and precedence, we hope that helps clear a few things about how Excel performs calculations (and that’s probably enough math to last a lifetime for some of you).

Example: Function Loan Payment (PMT)

Let’s look at an example to calculate a loan payment.

Start by creating a new worksheet.

Format the numbers with dollar signs and use zero decimal places since we are not interested in cents right now because they do not matter much when you are talking about dollars (in the next chapter we explore how to format numbers in detail). For example, to format the interest rate, right-click on the cell and click “format cells.” Pick percentage and use 2 decimal places.

Similarly, format the other cells for “currency” instead of percentage and pick “number” for the loan term.

Now we have:

Add the SUM() function to “total” monthly expenses.

Note, the mortgage cell is not included in the total. Excel does not know that you want to include that number, since there is no value there. So be careful to extend the SUM() function to the top either by using the cursor or typing E2 where it says E3 to include the mortgage in the sum.

Put the cursor in the payment cell (B4).

On the Formulas menu select the drop-down “Financial” and then select the PMT function. The wizard pops up:

Use the cursor to select the “rate.”,“nper” (loan term), “Pv” (“present value” or loan amount). Notice that you have to divide the interest rate by 12 since interest is calculated monthly. Also you need to multiply the loan term in years by 12 to get the loan term in months. Press “OK” to save the result in the spreadsheet.

Notice that the payment is shown as a negative number: -1013.37062. To make it positive and add it to the monthly expenses, point to the mortgage cell (E2). Type “=-” then use the cursor to point to the payment field. The resulting formula is =-B4.

Now the spreadsheet looks like this:

Your monthly expenses are $1,863 – Ouch!

Example: Text Function

Here we demonstrate how to use functions inside a formula and text functions.

Suppose you have a list of students as shown below. The first and last name is in one field separated by a comma. We need to put the last and firm names into separate cells. How do we do this?

To tackle this problem you need to use an algorithm – i.e., a step-by-step procedure for doing this.

For example, look at “Washington, George.” The procedure to split that into two words would be:

1. Calculate the length of the string.
2. Find the position of the comma (this shows where one word ends and the other begins).
3. Copy the left-hand side of the string up until the comma.
4. Copy the right-hand side of the string from the comma to the end.

Let’s discuss how to do this with “George Washington” step-by-step in Excel.

1. Calculate the length of the string with the function =LEN(A3) – the result is 18.
2. Now find the position of the comma by entering this function =FIND(“,”,A3”) – the result is 11.
3. Now take the left-hand side of the string up until the comma and create this nested formula using the result from Step 1: =LEFT(A3,FIND(“,”,A3)-1). Note, we have to subtract 1 from the length because FIND gives the position of the comma.

Here is what that all looks like when all the functions are placed together in a formula. In cell B3, you can see this formula takes all the information from cell A3 and inputs “Washington” into it.

So we have “Washington,” now we need to get “George.” How do we do this?

Note, that we could have saved the result from Step 1 in a cell by itself, say, B6, then write a simpler formula =LEFT(A3,B6-1). But that uses up one cell for the intermittent step.

1. Remember the position of the comma or calculate it again.
2. Calculate the length of the string.
3. Count the characters from the end of the string to the comma.

Take the number of characters from Step 3 and subtract one to omit the comma and space.

Let’s do this step-by-step.

1. From above, this is =FIND(“,”,A3”)
2. The length of the string is =LEN(A3)
3. You will need to use some math to find the number of characters to take: =LEN(A3) – FIND(“,”,A3) – 1
4. The right-hand side of the string we want is =RIGHT(A3,LEN(A3) – FIND(“,”,A3) – 1)

Your spreadsheet should now look similar to the screenshot below. We copied the formulas as text into the bottom of the spreadsheet to make it easier to read and see.

That one was a little difficult but you only need to write these formulas once.

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Boarder and shading

Border

In computer terms, a border can mean several things. One is a visual border in a document, sometimes a solid line, dotted or dashed line, or one made up of various objects, like flowers, baseballs, animals or virtually any other object. These borders can be used to represent the outer edge of a document or to separate sections within a document from each other. Below are some other example of how borders are used on computers.

How to create a page border in Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word gives you hundreds of page border options that allows you to surround a page with a clean or fancy border. Follow the steps below to insert a border in your Microsoft Word document.

1. Open Microsoft Word.
2. Click on the Page Layout tab.
   Note: In Word 2013, click on the Design tab instead.
3. On the Page Layout tab, select Page Borders.
4. On the Page Border tab in the Borders and Shading Window (shown below), select Box if you want a square border around your page.
5. Select the Style of border you want on the page, which can be solid, dotted, or dashed. If you want to select artwork to use as the border, click the down arrow on Art. In the example below, we're using the hearts art as a border.

Tip: By default, the borders are applied to the whole document, which means every page has the same border. Clicking the down arrow on Apply to gives you the option to select the first page only, selected page, all pages but the first page, and other options.

6. Once you've selected all the border options you want to use in your document, click the Ok button to apply the border.

Shading

In computer graphics, shading is a method used to create or enhance the illusion of depth in an image by varying the amount of darkness in the image. As you can see, three levels of shading are used in the example of a rectangular object, thus making it appear to be three dimensional. Shading can also be used to make some objects appear to be in front of or behind other objects in the image.

Note: Graphic editing software can be used to add shading to a digital image.

Also see: Digital image, Drop shadow, Shadow, Software terms

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Inserting image

Inserting Pictures in Microsoft Word

Adding pictures to a document can improve its readability as well as clarify points that are being made. Pictures usually come from two sources – a picture you have taken or created that is saved on your computer or what is called clipart.

Steps for adding your picture

Put the cursor at the location you want the picture to be located in your document. Click on Insert, then Picture, then From File. The insert picture dialog box will appear and you can then navigate to where you have previously stored the picture, highlight it and click the Insert button.

Steps for adding clipart

Put the cursor at the location you want the picture to be located in your document. Click on Insert, then Picture, then Clip Art. The following dialog box will appear.

You can pick pictures from any of the categories you see in this window or you can click on Clips Online and go to Microsoft’s website to search for clip art.

Type the name of the type of picture you want and click the Go button. For example, type "bicycles" and a display similar to the following will be displayed.

In this example there are 40 pages of different clip art pictures of bicycles to choose from. Select the picture you want by clicking in the check box under the picture.

You will see the download 1 item will appear on the left of the screen.

Click on the Download 1 item link and then click Agree on the next screen. Continue on the following screen and then Download Now on the screen after that. Click on Open on the download screen and you will see the picture you have selected similar to the sample below.

Click on the picture then the download arrow and the picture will be put in your document. Now close this screen and the Microsoft web page to return to your document. The picture will be active and the Picture tool bar should be showing. If it is not click on View on the Menu bar then Tool Bars then Picture.

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Insert table

Tables & Columns

A table is a grid of rows and columns that intersect to form cells. The lines that mark the cell boundaries are called gridlines. It’s often easier to read or present information in table format than in paragraph format. Using Word’s table feature, you can create a table and insert text, pictures, or another table into the table’s cells.

Creating a Table

There are two ways to create a table:

1. Insert a table by using the Insert Table dialog box or the Insert Table button on the Standard Toolbar.

2. Draw a table by using the Tables and Borders Toolbar.

Columns, Rows and Cells in a Table

Note: You can apply formatting options to tables, such as borders and shading, or display a table with or without gridlines.

Keying and Editing Text in Tables

Keying and editing text in tables is similar to working with text in paragraphs. The Insert and Delete keys work the same way. But if you key text in a cell and press Enter, a new paragraph is created within the same cell. The first row of a table is often called the header row, in which each cell contains a heading for the column of text below it.

Shortcuts for Moving Between Cells

To move to	Press
Next Cell	Tab
Previous Cell	Shift + Tab
First Cell in the Current Row	Alt + Home
Last Cell in the Current Row	Alt + End
Top Cell in the Current Column	Alt + PgUp
Last Cell in the Current Column	Alt + PgDn

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Drawing

How to use the Drawing Toolbar in Microsoft Word

In this section, you'll see how to use the drawing toolbar. You'll design a Logo to give you some experience drawing and moving shapes around the page. We'll start with something simple, just a basic shape with some text added. This is the Logo you'll be designing:

So start Microsoft Word if you haven't already. You don't need to add any special formatting to your document. Just leave the margins and page set up as they are.

For this section, you need the Drawing toolbar displayed. If you can't see your drawing toolbar, click on View from the menu bar. From the drop down menu, move your mouse to "Toolbars". From the sub menu that appears, make sure there is a tick next to Drawing. If there isn't, click on Drawing with your left mouse button. Your drawing toolbar is displayed. If it's not at the top with all the other tools, look at the bottom of the screen. This is the Drawing toolbar:

To add an oval to your new page, click on the oval in the Drawing toolbar:

Move your mouse pointer to your white page. (Anywhere on the page will do). Your mouse pointer will turn into a thin cross.

• Hold your left mouse button down
• Keep it held down and drag your mouse across the screen
• Let go when you're happy with the size
• Your shape will look something like the one below:

If you hold your mouse over any of the white squares, your mouse pointer will change to the shape of a double-headed cross. This is the resize mouse pointer. To resize, hold down your left mouse button and drag in or out. The resize pointer looks like the one below:

Move your mouse pointer to the edges of the shape and the pointer turns into a arrow-headed cross. This is the Move pointer. To move your shape, hold down your left mouse button and drag the shape to the position you want. The Move pointer looks like this:

Once you have moved your shape into position, you can start to format it. We'll add some colour to our logo.

How to Add Colour to Your Microsoft Word Logo

To add a coloured background to your shape, do the following:

• Make sure that your shape is highlighted (has it got the white squares? If not click on the edges of the shape with your left mouse button)
• From the menu bar, click Format
• From the drop down menu, click AutoShape. ( Or click on the edges of your shape with your right mouse button. Then click Format Auto Shape from the pop up menu.)
  

You'll get the Format Auto Shape dialogue box popping up. Click on the "Colours and Lines" tab at the top. Your dialogue box should look like this one:

The area we're interested in is Fill, right at the top of the dialogue box. At the moment, it is set to a white colour. Yours may even say No fill, meaning just the outline of the shape. To add a colour, click the black down-pointing arrow just to the right of the Fill drop down box. You should see the colour box appear:

To choose a colour for your shape, just click on one of the coloured squares with your left mouse button. Then click OK to close the dialogue box. Your shape should now have a coloured background.

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Page Breaks

Just as text wraps automatically from the end of one line to the beginning of the next line, text flows automatically from the end of one page to the beginning of the next page. This process is called pagination, and there are techniques for controlling where page break, particularly in long documents.

Hard and Soft Page Breaks

As you work on a document, Word is constantly calculating the amount of space available on the page. Page length is determined by the size of the paper and the top and bottom margins. For example, using standard-size paper and default margins, page length is nine inches. When a document exceeds this length, Word creates a soft page break. Word adjusts this automatic page break as you add or delete text. A soft page break appears as a horizontal dotted line on the screen in Normal view. In print Layout view, you see the actual page break-the bottom of one page and the top of the next.

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